The Effects of Adrenaline on Arousal and Attraction
Kristin McKinney
Abstract
The effects that adrenaline has on the levels of attraction and arousal were examined to see if there was any correlation between the two variables. Seventy students at a small MidwesternUniversitywere given a survey asking questions relating to their attraction to a member of the opposite sex approximately 15 minutes after participating in a physical activity. The results of the survey were reviewed to see if the level of adrenaline produced during the physical activity would have any effect on the participant's attraction to photographs in comparison to those who had not participated in any physical activity. Results indicated a significant positive correlation between adrenaline and attraction, which means as level of adrenaline increased, so did level of attraction. The findings in this study could be used in various ways including ideas a marriage counselor could implement to help couples and informing clients that a variety of factors impact an attraction to others in a long-term relationship to increase attraction to one another.
Keywords: adrenalin, arousal, attraction, emotion, liking.
The explanation as to what causes two individuals to be attracted to each other has been tested and researched many times over the last thirty years (e.g., Dutton & Aron, 1974; Cohen, Waugh, & Place, 1989; Meston & Frohlich, 2003). Previous research has indicated that by increasing the levels of emotional arousal, which involves releasing adrenaline into the body, you are also increasing the amount of attraction between two individuals (e.g. Dutton & Aron, 1974; Meston & Frohlich, 2003). These researchers placed individuals/couples in situations that increased their physical arousal and observed as their attraction levels to another participant also elevated. Physical arousal and attraction have been researched in a number of ways throughout the years but continues to be proven with a stronger base with each replication done (e.g. Cotton, 1981; Dutton & Aron, 1974; Meston & Frohlich, 2003). The purpose of this study was to discover if by increasing the emotional arousal of people, it is possible to show that they are sexually aroused by an attractive member of the opposite sex due specifically to the fact that adrenaline had been released into the body. The results would support this theory if there is a correlation between emotional arousal and physical attraction.
One of the reasons for this increased level of attraction can be labeled as the misattribution of arousal can be described as the actual attribution of arousal being incorrectly accredited to the wrong source. An emotional experience that is inaccurately attributed to the wrong source rather than the actual cause (Manstead & Miles, 1995). There has been speculation as to the validity of the studies dealing with misattribution of arousal that has raised many questions involving other reasons for the increased levels of attraction (Cotton, 1981). The research has proven multiple times that the misattribution of arousal is valid and does cause the increased level of attraction within an individual.
The research originally done for the misattribution of arousal was published by Dutton and Aron (1974). The researchers placed an attractive female interviewer on a suspension bridge or an unsteady/longer bridge. The female interviewer asked male participants to fill out a simple survey which contained Thematic Apperception Test pictures. The interview then gave the males her name as well as her phone number and asked them to call her if they had any questions concerning this survey. The men that had been on the suspension bridge that was less sturdy were more apt to call the interviewer and request a date. The researchers concluded that the arousal was due to fear induced by the bridge and likely caused the elevated levels of attraction for the woman that the males had experienced.
Cohen, Waugh, and Place (1989) did research about misattribution by doing field work in a movie theater. They went into the theater to analyze the affiliative behavior between couples as they entered and exited two different types of movies. The couple's levels of attraction were studied while watching a high-arousing suspense movie compared to those in a low-arousing movie. The research indicated that the couples in the high-arousing suspense movie had more afflictive behavior (e.g. touching, talking, etc.) while exiting the movie as oppose to those exiting the low-arousing movie.
The research indicated that by putting couples in a scenario which stimulates their emotional arousal, their affiliative behavior towards each other increase as well. The misattribution of arousal could occur when trying to find out why the affiliative behavior happened. The misattribution could be due to the movie or the fact that the couple was together in the first place. The couples seemed to be more affectionate towards each other when the adrenaline was produced in the body which was aroused by the suspenseful movie.
Meston and Frohlich (2003) conducted a study that included a group of couples as they entered and exited a rollercoaster ride at a theme park. The first set of couples were asked to record their heart rate as they got on a rollercoaster and as they got off while sitting by their significant other on the ride. The second sets of couples were asked to record their heart rate while entering and exiting but were not to sit next to their significant other. The first couples had indicated that while on the rollercoaster ride, they had a heightened attraction to the individual that rode the rollercoaster ride with them. This attraction was visible through the way the couples interacted with each other through their conversations and the amount of physical touch they had with one another. The second couple's levels of attraction were not as heightened as the first couple thus proving that the release of adrenaline produced by the rollercoaster ride heightened the level of attraction that the couples had for one another.
It was found that it is possible to manipulate emotions as well as stimulate emotional arousal between two couples that had already been together before the study was performed. The intensity of the rollercoaster ride combined with a small amount of fear produced the couple's physical dependence on each other. Assuming the emotional responses of the couple, the male could have felt needed and the female could have felt supported.
Sinclair, Hoffman, Mark, Martin, and Pickering (1994) conducted a similar study where they took a group of subjects to test arousal and attraction. The researchers took two groups: one that had been seated and one that had been exercising. The groups were then asked to fill out a 20 item measure, as well as a 10 item arousal measure. The exercised group rated more aroused as well as more positive than the ones that had stayed seated. The research done showed that there are many types of arousal that comes from adrenaline produced in the body and it does not always have to be a romantic type of attraction. There are times when the attraction can also be toward positive things such as beautiful scenery, bright lights, things that catch the eye. The researchers found that the more aroused a person is the more attracted they are to certain variables. This attraction is done through manipulation of the emotions due to the exercise which the group was unaware of why they had to exercise in the beginning.
Dutton and Aron (1989) conducted continuing research proving that romantic attraction or sexual arousal is enhanced when the arousal stems from a non-sexual source. This study deals with the misattribution of arousal and the men who have conducted the studies. The method consisted of a group of people who watched the Milgrim's obedience paradigm video (which contained a 'teacher' and the 'experimenter') to find if it were possible to manipulate both discomfort and arousal. The groups were told that the people in the movie were either role playing or that this was a real life situation. When the group was told that the movie was a role play, they did not have an increased emotional response. When the group was informed that this was a real life situation, they exhibited much discomfort, squirming, nervous laughter, etc. Therefore, by manipulating the description of the video, they were also manipulating the reaction and response of the people. The males reacted with an angry response while the females responded with high levels of anxiety. The participants were then asked to submit a self-report and a rating of the attractiveness of the teacher/experimenter. The group rated the teacher/experimenter significantly more attractive when they believed that the video was real life than when they thought it was just a role play. The conflict arousal method was proven to be affective in this study.
Lewandowski and Aron (2004) conducted research on interpersonal relationships with strangers in which a group of subjects participate in a variety of games. Before they started, the individuals were asked to fill out the consent forms that briefly asked them to rate their team mate on how 'good looking' they were after briefly meeting before the form was distributed. The couples were assigned at random in groups of two and then were asked to participate in a variety of games consisting of high versus low competition as well as high versus low arousal. The couples were then asked to rate their opposite sex partners and the level of attraction for them. The couples that participated in the high competition and high arousal games had an increased romantic attraction for each other than the couples that participated in the low competition/arousal games. Unlike using pictures or confederates, this study dealt with personal contact and interaction between participants that provides validity to the research.
Mezzacappa, Katkin, and Palmer (1999) conducted an experiment that correlated with Schachter and Singer's (1962) research which has been replicated in a variety of ways and multiple times. This article looks at the effects that epinephrine (also known as adrenaline) has on emotional arousal. The participants were divided into two groups which were either given injections of epinephrine or saline. They were then asked to view clips and record their emotional responses. The clips were used to elicit anger, fear, or amusement while their physiological/facial responses were being recorded. The study showed that participants that had been elicited the epinephrine showed great arousal as well as emotional intensity, especially in the fear and amusement. The information of their recorded responses showed that certain emotions were affected more by the epinephrine injections which hypothesizes that the use of epinephrine (adrenaline) does increase an individual's emotional response to certain stimuli.
White, Fishbein, and Rutsein (1981) conducted research to find that misattribution of arousal facilitates attraction or passionate love. The researchers had men run in place for an allotted amount of time and then asked them to take a 12 item measure of their arousal and mood. They were placed in one of four experimental conditions: high arousal-attractive confederate, high arousal-unattractive confederate, low arousal-attractive confederate, and low arousal-unattractive confederate. After 15 minutes, the men were asked to watch one of two videotapes of a female confederate who talked about a variety of topics such as hobbies, family, dating activities, and stating that she had no current boyfriend. One of the tapes showed the woman made-up to be attractive, while being dressed in tight clothing with make-up, or unattractive with ill-fitting clothing with and no make-up. They were then asked to rate the women on a scale that consisted of items such as sincere, shallow, sexually warm, humorous etc. Furthermore, they were asked to rate the women on how physically attractive she was, how much they would like to date her, how sexy she was, and how much they would like to kiss her. The results indicated that the woman confederate was more liked under high arousal (rather than low) when she was made to be attractive. However, she was less liked under high arousal when she was made to be unattractive. The results demonstrated the misattribution effect which can be obtained when arousal and confederate attractiveness interact to enable liking when the subject was aroused.
Allen, Kenrick, Linder, and McCall (1989) in the study done in this article, researchers attempt to explain the arousal-attraction concept without using the misattribution of arousal and negative reinforcement ideas. The two studies use the fear arousal method as well as the focus of attention method. The researchers plan two studies that test response facilitation, which is the performance of a certain act and expectation the subject to react in the same manner, in correlation with misattribution and negative reinforcement. The reaction can actually account for the increase in attraction when the source of arousal is salient unlike misattribution which has no actual evidence. Response facilitation can show increase in attraction when the source of arousal is affectively neutral or positive.
The participants in study one were placed in a room with an attractive confederate where researchers were trying to elicit a high-fear-arousal. The researchers used the sounds of an electric shock (high arousal) and a type-writer (low arousal) to elicit emotional stimulation within the participant. The participants were then asked to rate the confederate on an attraction scale. Findings showed that there was an increased amount of attraction for the confederate in the high arousal situations but these results suggest that attraction in aversive environments is not well explained in misattribution terms.
The second study was a reproduction of the research done by White, Fishbein, and Rutsein (1981) where the researchers had participants run in place for either 15 seconds (low arousal) or two minutes (high arousal) which elicited a nonthreatening source of arousal (exercise). They were asked to watch a three minute video consisting of a female student talking about interests, family, favorite dating activities, and that she had no boyfriend. The results indicated that the participants that were highly aroused were more attracted to the female confederate than those who were not as aroused. The results from both studies indicated that arousal can lead to increased attraction toward a good-looking target person even if the source of the arousal is made highly salient.
Pines (2001) conveys information based on the evolutionary theory of romantic attraction which states that men are attracted to physical appearance while women are attracted to status (i.e., social and economic status, ambition, character, etc.). Research shows that men and women are attracted to different qualities because men look for a woman who can bear children while women look for a man who is willing to commit/provide/protect. The social construct theory was researched and findings showed that it is the understanding of the world through different cultures (Peng & Nisbett, 1999). Goodwin (1990) stated that studies show that men and women put at the top of their lists for desirable traits in a partner: kindness, consideration, honesty, and a sense of humor. The researchers examined the traits most desired in a mate and if there was a gender difference. According to the evolutionary theory, it was hypothesized that gender differences in romantic attraction will be large and significant. Also, men will be most attracted to women's appearance and women will be most attracted to men's status. According to the social contract theory, it was hypothesized that individual and cultural differences in romantic attraction will be larger and more significant than the gender differences.
An interview was conducted by the researchers where a participant was asked extensive questions about their most significant romantic relationship. They were asked simple questions about the relationship (i.e. where they met, first impressions, how the relationship developed, etc). Results showed that gender by culture provided support for both theories. Men were attracted to the physical appearance of women but it was the women's personality that most men were most attracted. Status was not as mentioned as much as the researchers hypothesized. Women were significantly more likely than men to attribute their romantic attraction to arousal (p=.04). Men were just as attracted to someone who satisfied their needs just as much as women.
Walsh, Meister, & Kleinke (1977) conducted an experiment where they led 40 female college students were led to believe that male interviewers had given them favorable, neutral, or unfavorable evaluations. Half of the participants were told they had a false heart-rate showing their arousal was significantly higher than the other people being interviewed. The other participants were told their arousal was only average. The hypothesis was that arousal in the presence of a favorable interviewer would be labeled as a positive affection and the perceived arousal in the presence of an unfavorable interview would be labeled as negative affection. The results showed that participants who were aroused were more very willing to come to a second interview with the favorable interviewer and somewhat willing to come to one with the unfavorable interviewer. For the non-aroused participants, interviewer evaluations had no influence on their willingness to return for a second interview.
Carducci (2001) conducted research to examine the role of emotional reactions in the relationship between sexual arousal and interpersonal evaluation. This study was done by hypothesizing that an emotional response to sexual stimulation and the attractiveness of a female confederate would combine to influence the evaluations of a female target. There were 75 males were asked to read either a sexual arousing or non-arousing written passive then to indicate their emotional responses on a scale. They were then asked to rate an average attractive woman on a split-screen slide with either a highly attractive or unattractive woman using an eight item measure of attraction (i.e., happy, pleasant, likable, etc.). The target female (the average attractiveness) rated higher when compared to the less attractive female comparison. The hypothesis was supported due to the female target's evaluations being influenced by the interaction of sexual stimuli and attractiveness of the comparison woman.
Research done by Mederios (2008) seeks to find ways to intensify attraction such as intimacy, passion, and commitment as well as strengthen a current relationship. Previous research shows that there is a 50% divorce rate, 28.8 million people living alone, and the number of people who are not marrying is drastically increasing since the 1980s (Crooks & Baur, 2005). According to Reynolds (2006), the number of spouses or partners exercising together is becoming popular. 'Benefits of couple exercising are reviving physical excitement, interest in a mate's skills, and practical usage of time by simultaneously exercising and spending time with a partner,' (Mederios, 2008, p. 12). Exercise has been proven to improve mood, sleep, anxiety, and depression. It was hypothesized that males would be less attracted to a competitor, even if she was a potential mate and could lead to a negative affect by being challenged as well as physical aroused by the same person. The research conducted shows competition and arousal does increase attraction between partners by having them play games with various levels of physical arousal/competitiveness. After the game, participants filled out a questionnaire based on simple attraction items (i.e., how much would you like to see your partner again? How well do you think you could get along with your partner?). Most of the participants were paired with someone they considered to be a stranger, some were paired with a friend, and some were paired with their significant other. The competition and arousal interaction did not significantly impact the measures. Participants were more willing to commit to their friends than to strangers but could have been because they thought the game was more fun when played with friends. They rated potential mates more attractive overall when compared with the data dealing with how attractive the participants rated their game partners. There was no significant interaction between gender and competition although people felt more committed to potential mates after competitive games than after noncompetitive games. Other felt more committed to non-mates after noncompetitive games than after competitive games. Participants stated that games were more fun when playing with a potential mate but more arousing games were not as fun when played with them.
Through the previous research, the misattribution of arousal has been performed and has provided positive results many times as well as different ways of testing the theory. The arousal of the emotions is not difficult and can be done through even a simple exercise (Sinclair, Hoffman, Mark, Martin, & Pickering, 2004). Individuals have participated in the research for years with the foundation being laid by Dutton and Aron. These two men published information that has aided with the research to be tested with multiple hypotheses as well as different scenarios to prove them. There has been little research that has been able to disprove the misattribution of arousal. The misattribution comes in when an individual believes that their arousal is due to the person of the opposite sex or the liking of a certain object when in reality is that it is based on the situation. Individuals tend to attribute the increase of arousal to the attraction for the person/object instead of the arousal coming from the roller coaster, the suspenseful movie, or the exercise. Although the attraction is emotionally stimulating, the arousal factor just increases the attraction levels within two people.
Research tells us that it is possible to increase the level of attraction that two people have for each other by raising the levels of emotional stimulation. In the current study, the misattribution of arousal was tested through the increase of adrenalin and arousal through the use of exercise. After the participants had done the exercise, they were asked to fill out a survey asking them to rate members of the opposite sex based on headshots of their face as well as the type of date they would like to go on with this confederate. This study includes a modern perspective on research conducted over thirty years ago to support the concept that the misattribution of arousal continues to exist today. Males and females from a private midwestern university were asked to participate in the study. The hypotheses for the current study were that:
1). If the levels of adrenaline are increased though exercise, then attraction between two people also increases.
2). Individuals will be more inclined to take a member of the opposite sex to whom they are attracted on an intimate date (i.e., dinner) versus a more casual date (i.e., concert, theme park).
3). Individuals will be more inclined to take a member of the opposite sex to whom they are less attracted to on a more casual date (i.e., concert, theme park) versus a more intimate date (i.e. dinner).
4). Men will have greater levels of adrenaline, attraction, and arousal than women. The level of attraction will be measured by questions pertaining to photographs on the survey.
Method
Participants
The misattribution of arousal has been studied multiple times and in a variety of ways. In this study, participants were randomly selected from students at a small midwestern university. They were all over the age of 18 years old. There were 70 participants, 31 males and 39 females, who were involved in this research and included students of various races, sexual orientations, and socioeconomic statuses.
Materials
Participants were asked to fill out a survey consisting of 25 items. Eight items relating to their own level of adrenaline due to the physical activity and two items generally related to attraction to members of the opposite sex. They were then asked to answer a series of five items related to their attraction levels to the members of the opposite sex portrayed in three black-and-white photographs. Items were on a Likert scale ranging (1 to 8). This consisted of items rating one's desire to take the individual in the photograph on a date and the type of date. They were requested to answer the questions as honestly as possible and to record how they felt toward the person in the photo displayed on survey. The aim of the research method was to research the correlation between adrenaline and attraction.
Procedure
This research has been replicated many times before in similar experiments. Sinclair, Hoffman, Mark, Martin, and Pickering (1994) did similar research involving the same type of procedure that the participants were involved in during the current study. They found that exercise is a great way to increase the levels of adrenalin and the heart rate. The current research was designed using Dutton and Aron's (1974) study about the misattribution of arousal which aided in formulating the hypotheses. The survey was then produced from the research on topics of adrenaline, attraction, and arousal with questions that were key components in figuring out ways the hypotheses could be proven correct. The surveys were field tested in an Experimental Psychology class consisting of approximately 12 students. Revisions were made to the survey and sent through IRB for further examination. With IRB approval, surveys were distributed to participants after they had engaged in physical activity during a sporting event, or working out in the fitness center. After the surveys were returned, the data was entered into SPSS and analyzed. To test the hypotheses of the relationship between adrenalin and attraction, a chi-square cross tabulation with planned post-hoc testing was used to determine any significant correlations. A one-way analysis of variance with a means plot was conducted on both males and females in relation to their levels of adrenalin as well as their levels of attraction. Also, chi-square cross tabulation with planned post-hoc testing were utilized to determine the type of dates that both men and women were willing to participate with the individual in the photograph.
Results
A one-way analysis of variance was used to test the hypothesis that men and women report a difference in levels of adrenaline. Results indicated a significant difference with males (M =5.1, SD =1.90) having a significantly higher level of adrenaline than females (M =4.21, SD =1.70), F (1, 68) =4.262, p=.043, (refer to table 1 and figure 1).
Table 1
Figure 1
A one-way analysis of variance was used to test the hypothesis that men and women report a difference in levels of attraction. Results showed a significant difference with males (M=64.00, SD= 11.10) having a significantly higher level of attraction than females (M=50.05, SD=10.96), F (1, 68) =27.658, p< .001, (refer to table 2 and figure 2).
Table 2
Figure 2
The hypothesis that there would be a positive relationship between adrenaline and attraction was tested with a Pearson Correlation Coefficient. Results showed a significant positive correlation between adrenaline and attraction, r=.48, p < .001, n=70 (refer to table 3). This indicates that as adrenaline levels increased, levels of attraction also increased. A cross-tabulation indicated that 19 out of 31 males wanted to take female one on a dinner date; 21 out of 31 wanted to take female two on a dinner or movie date; 13 out of 31 wanted to take female three to dinner while the rest were more evenly scattered. A cross-tabulation indicated that 25 out of 39 females wanted to take male one on a dinner date or to a sporting event; 20 out of 39 wanted to take male two to a dinner date or to a theme park; 14 out of 39 wanted to take male three to a movie while the rest were more scattered.
Table 3
This means that as adrenaline levels increased, levels of attraction also increased. A cross-tabulation indicated that 19 out of 31 males wanted to take female one on a dinner date; 21 out of 31 wanted to take female two on a dinner or movie date; 13 out of 31 wanted to take female three to dinner while the rest were more evenly scattered. A cross-tabulation indicated that 25 out of 39 females wanted to take male one on a dinner date or to a sporting event; 20 out of 39 wanted to take male two to a dinner date or to a theme park; 14 out of 39 wanted to take male three to a movie while the rest were more scattered.
Discussion
Based upon the findings in this research, the hypotheses: 1). as the levels of adrenaline are increased though exercise, then attraction between two people also increases, 2). individuals will be more inclined to take a member of the opposite sex to whom they are attracted on an intimate date (i.e., dinner) versus a more casual date (i.e., concert, theme park), and 3. Men will have greater levels of adrenaline, attraction, and arousal than women were all supported. The hypothesis that individuals will be more inclined to take a member of the opposite sex to whom they are less attracted to on a more casual date (i.e., concert, theme park) versus a more intimate date (i.e. dinner) was not supported.
This research offers a unique insight into the different ways that adrenaline affects levels of attraction between members of the opposite sex. The findings indicate that there is a correlation between the two factors that have been the focus of previous studies conducted in the past. The research provides interesting results which have been supported in previous research and continue to be supported in the current study (e.g. Cotton, 1981; Dutton & Aron, 1974; Meston & Frohlich, 2003).
Additionally, marriage and family therapists may implement the results of this research in relationship counseling by assigning tasks for a couple to integrate high arousal dates into the time they spend with one another causing the physical arousal (even if due to misattribution of arousal) to bring them closer together. These tasks could help the couple find ways to so more affection as well as a heightened need for each other that they could not experience during an activity done in the daily routine. The times spent together could focus on doing things that would cause the levels of adrenaline to increase such as a rollercoaster ride, exercising together, or possibly a suspenseful movie.
Obvious limitations to this study would be the relatively small sample size and the use of a convenience sample in the collection of data. A random sample, which would include other groups and all age ranges, would produce results which might be more easily generalized to the population as a whole. The wording of the questions in relation to the participant's level of adrenaline could have been a factor in the results as well considering the difficulty of determining an individual's level or adrenaline and heart rate. Additionally, the types of photographs used in the survey may be a factor that could influence the results. The photographs are of individuals that are stereotypically more 'attractive' and the data could have produced different results with the use of alternative photographs.
References
Allen, J., Kenrick, D., Linder, D., & McCall, M. (1989). Arousal and attraction: A response-facilitation alternative to misattribution and negative-reinforcement models. Journal ofPersonality and Social Psychology, 57(2), 261-270.
Byrne, D., & Clore, G. (1967). Effectance Arousal and Attraction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 6(4), 1-18.
Carducci, B. (1985). Sexual arousal, affect, and heterosexual attraction. The Journal of Social Psychology, 125(6), 771-773.
Cohen, B., Waugh, G., & Place, K. (1989). At the Movies: An Unobtrusive Study of Arousal-Attraction. Journal of Social Psychology, 129(5), 691-693.
Cotton, J. L. (1981). A review of research on Schachter's theory of emotion and the misattribution of Arousal. European Journal of Social Psychology, 11: 365'397.
Crooks, R., & Baur, K. (2005). Our sexuality (9th edition). Pacific Grove, CA: Wadsworth.
Dutton, D., & Aron, A. (1974). Some evidence for heightened sexual attraction under conditions of high anxiety. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30(4), 510-517.
Foster C, Witcher B, Campbell W, Green J. (1998) Arousal and attraction: Evidence for automatic and controlled processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1):86-101.
Goodwin, R. (1990). Sex differences among partner preferences: Are the sexes really very similar? Sex Roles, 23, 501-513.
Lewandowski, G., & Aron, A. (2004). Distinguishing arousal from novelty and challenge in initial romantic attraction between strangers. Social Behavior and Personality, 32(4), 361-372.
Manstead, A., Hewstone, M., Fiske, S., Hogg, M., Reis, H., & Semin, G. (1995). The Blackwell encyclopedia of social psychology. Cambridge, MA US: Blackwell Reference/Blackwell Publishers.
Meston, C. M., & Frohlich, P. F. (2003). Love at First Fright: Partner SalienceModerates Roller-Coaster-Induced Excitation Transfer. Archives of Sexual Behavior. 32(6), 537-44.
Medeiros, K. (2008). The Effects of Competition and Physical Arousal on Attraction between Game Dyads. Journal of Undergraduate Psychological, 3, 11-19.
Mezzacappa, E., Katkin, E., & Palmer, S. (1999). Epinephrine, arousal, and emotion: A new look at two-factor theory. Cognition and Emotion, 13(2), 181-199
Peng, K., & Nisbett, R.E. (1999). Culture, dialectic, and reasoningabout contradiction. American Psychologist, 54, 741-754.
Pine, M. (2001). The role of gender and culture in romantic attraction. European Psychologist,6(2), 96-102.
Reynolds, G. (2006). How to exercise in harmony. The New York Times Online Edition.
Schachter, S., & Singer, J. (1963). "Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional state": Erratum. Psychological Review, 70(1), 121-122.
Sinclair, R., Hoffman, C., Mark, M., Martin, L., & Pickering, T. (1994). CONSTRUCT ACCESSIBILITY AND THE MISATTRIBUTION OF AROUSAL: Schachter and Singer Revisited. Psychological Science, 5(1), 15-19.
Walsh, N., Meister, L., & Kleinke, C. (1977). Interpersonal attraction and visual behavior as a function of perceived arousal and evaluation by an opposite sex person. The Journal of Social Psychology, 103(1), 65-74.
White, G., Fishbein, S., & Rutsein, J. (1981). Passionate love and the misattribution of arousal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41(1), 56-62.
Appendix A: consent form
Please read the following consent form. If you have any questions, ask the experimenter and he/she will answer your questions.
'I have read the below statement and have been fully advised of the procedures to be used in this project. I have been given sufficient opportunity to ask any questions I had concerning the procedures and possible risks involved. I understand the potential risks involved and I assume them voluntarily.'
Please sign your initials, detach below the dotted line, and continue with the survey.
Sign your initials here:_____________________ Date: _____________
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The McKendree University Psychology Department supports the practice of protection for human participants participating in research and related activities. The following information is provided so that you can decide whether you wish to participate in the present study. Your participation in this study is completely voluntary. You should be aware that even if you agree to participate, you are free to withdraw at any time, and that if you do withdraw from the study, your grade in this class will not be affected in any way. The survey is being conducted to assist the researcher in fulfilling a partial requirement for PSY 496W.
You must be 18 years of age to participate in the study. It should not take more than 10 minutes for you to complete and will be fully anonymous as well as confidential. If you should have any other questions, please do not hesitate to contact me, Kristin McKinney at kmmckinney@mckendree.edu or Dr. Bosse, 618-537-6882 or at mbosse@mckendree.edu. Some of the questions in the survey may confront sensitive topics. If answering any of these questions causes you problems or concerns, please contact one of our campus psychologists, Bob Clipper or Amy Champion, at 618-537-6503.
Appendix B
Student Survey (male)
Please circle one of the following items:
1. Gender: Male Female
2. Year in school: first year sophomore junior senior
3. Are you currently in a relationship? Yes No
In the past 15 minutes, have you:
4. Participated in a physical activity? Yes No
4a. If so, what type of physical activity:
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Not strenuous Very strenuous
5. Taken an exam? Yes No
5a. If so, were you nervous before, during, or after the exam?
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Not nervous Very nervous
Please circle an answer to the following questions truthfully to the best of your knowledge:
6. Do you currently feel an increased level of adrenaline?
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Not at all Very much
7. Do you currently feel an increased heart rate?
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Not at all Very much
8. Are you currently nervous or excited?
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Not at all Very much
9. Which physical trait do you usually notice first when looking for a potential relationship?
Face Personality Body Other:______________
10. If you were to plan a date, what type of date would you prefer? (circle one)
Movie Concert Theme Park Dinner Sporting Event Other:_______________
Please answer the following questions as if you are SINGLE. Examine the photograph, and then rate yourself on the following scales as truthfully as possibly. Answer based on the content of the photograph, not the quality.
11. I am attracted to this person.
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Not attracted Very attracted
12. I would take this person on a date.
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Absolutely Definitely
Not
13. This person causes me to be physically aroused.
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Absolutely Definitely
Not
14. I would take this person on what type of date? (circle one)
Movie Concert Theme Park Dinner Sporting Event Other:_______________
15. I would ask this person on a second date? Yes No
16. I am attracted to this person.
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Not attracted Very attracted
17. I would take this person on a date.
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Absolutely Definitely
Not
18. This person causes me to be physically aroused.
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Absolutely Definitely
Not
19. I would take this person on what type of date? (circle one)
Movie Concert Theme Park Dinner Sporting Event Other:_______________
20. I would ask this person on a second date? Yes No
21. I am attracted to this person.
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Not attracted Very attracted
22. I would take this person on a date.
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Absolutely Definitely
Not
23. This person causes me to be physically aroused.
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Absolutely Definitely
Not
24. I would take this person on what type of date? (circle one)
Movie Concert Theme Park Dinner Sporting Event Other:_______________
25. I would ask this person on a second date? Yes No
Appendix C: female survey
Student Survey (female)
Please circle one of the following items:
1. Gender: Male Female
2. Year in school: first year sophomore junior senior
3. Are you currently in a relationship? Yes No
In the past 15 minutes, have you:
4. Participated in a physical activity? Yes No
4a. If so, what type of physical activity:
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Not strenuous Very strenuous
5. Taken an exam? Yes No
5a. If so, were you nervous before, during, or after the exam?
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Not nervous Very nervous
Please circle an answer to the following questions truthfully to the best of your knowledge:
6. Do you currently feel an increased level of adrenaline?
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Not at all Very much
7. Do you currently feel an increased heart rate?
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Not at all Very much
8. Are you currently nervous or excited?
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Not at all Very much
9. Which physical trait do you usually notice first when looking for a potential relationship?
Face Personality Body Other:______________
10. If you were to plan a date, what type of date would you prefer? (circle one)
Movie Concert Theme Park Dinner Sporting Event Other:_______________
Please answer the following questions as if you are SINGLE. Examine the photograph, and then rate yourself on the following scales as truthfully as possibly. Answer based on the content of the photograph, not the quality.
11. I am attracted to this person.
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Not attracted Very attracted
12. I would take this person on a date.
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Absolutely Definitely
Not
13. This person causes me to be physically aroused.
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Absolutely Definitely
Not
14. I would take this person on what type of date? (circle one)
Movie Concert Theme Park Dinner Sporting Event Other:_______________
15. I would ask this person on a second date? Yes No
16. I am attracted to this person.
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Not attracted Very attracted
17. I would take this person on a date.
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Absolutely Definitely
Not
18. This person causes me to be physically aroused.
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Absolutely Definitely
Not
19. I would take this person on what type of date? (circle one)
Movie Concert Theme Park Dinner Sporting Event Other:_______________
20. I would ask this person on a second date? Yes No
21. I am attracted to this person.
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Not attracted Very attracted
22. I would take this person on a date.
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Absolutely Definitely
Not
23. This person causes me to be physically aroused.
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8
Absolutely Definitely
Not
24. I would take this person on what type of date? (circle one)
Movie Concert Theme Park Dinner Sporting Event Other:_______________
25. I would ask this person on a second date? Yes No
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